The Roman Triumph and the Arch of Constantine
Matt Charlton
Over the centuries of the prosperous and successful Roman civilization, there are but a few singular figures that stick out as characterizing crucial elements of change. Emperor Constantine represents perhaps the most drastic transition in the history of the Empire. Constantine united the Empire in a time of inner turmoil, and did so whilst converting to Christianity, making him the first Emperor to claim the faith. As perhaps the boldest of his moves, the Emperor officially relocated the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople (Byzantium), removing the Eternal City from the political and cultural center of the empire. The Roman Empire, once a republic, underwent a severe change in the role of executive leadership when, under Diocletian (244-311), the Empire became divided into quadrants of legalistic entities, known as the Tetrarchy. Taking a step back, this paper will analyze and explore the role and use of the triumph itself, as well as the subsequently constructed triumphal arch, and their ties to Constantine.
In order to appreciate the Arch of Constantine, it is important to learn about the life of its namesake, thus shedding light on the purpose and uses of its construction. Furthermore, an explanation of the triumph will provide a further tie to the Arch. Constantine was born to Constantius and Helena in the Roman province of Moesia (modern day Serbia) around 272. Constantius was involved in the government, and accepted an appointment in Gaul as praetorian prefect around 285. This position was essentially a subordinate of one of the Caesars under Diocletian’s new split government, later to be called the Tetrarchy after it halved again in 293. However, Constantius was to serve not Diocletian, but Maximian, the Emperor of the West. Constantius was soon promoted, and as his title was hereditary... all Constantine had to do was wait. However, upon the pre-planned resignation by the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian, they did not recognize Constantine as a successor, as the young man thought he would/should be. Instead, as their final acts, the Emperors appointed Severus and Maxentius instead. This marks the beginning of Constantine's aggressive actions in his political career. Shortly thereafter, in 306, Constantius died as co-Emperor (Augustus) of the West, leaving Constantine with his legal support, and more importantly his legions. Because he was not declared as his father's successor by the state, Constantine was instead proclaimed Emperor by his troops and sought action to achieve his goal of ruling a united Empire. Eventually Constantine was granted the lesser title of Caesar by the then Augustus Galerius, but this proved unsatisfying to the rising star. After a series of conflicts against others Caesars, Constantine cemented his rule at the famous Battle of Milvian Bridge against Maxentius in 312. The storied Praetorian Guard, an elite military guard that sided with Maxentius, ceased to exist hereafter, and was replaced “by the largely German mounted guard, the scholae.” Perhaps the most famous aspect of this event was not so much Constantine's victory in battle but his conversion of faith. Constantine reportedly had a dream or vision from God where he heard/saw, “In this (sign), conquer.” The sign is that of the Chi Rho,
and became widely used by Byzantine troops thereafter. “The interlocked letters X and P... form the beginning of the word Christ in Greek.” After accepting rule of the Western realms of the Roman Empire, Constantine completed his unification of the Empire in 324 when he defeated Licinius. From this point, Constantine had eliminated all of his immediate and most important (dangerous) rivals. This consummated his role and title as that of the lone Augustus of the entire Roman Emperor, ending the Tetrarchy.
Constantine's legacy is vast, but can be summarized relatively briefly to lend in explaining the Arch. Constantine’s conversion to Christianity at the Battle of Milvian Bridge is still the topic of scholarly debate, and it is likely that we will never truly know when he converted within. In the public realm, Constantine did not become baptized until he was nearly dead, as was common at the time. This would allow all past sins, until that point, to be forgiven and washed away. In other words, the idea was to “save” baptism until you were nearly dead, after you had already sinned substantially, so as to not have that over your soul on your way to Heaven. Despite the political ambiguity of his conversion, Constantine did put a final end to the persecution of the Christians within the Empire. Compare this to soldiers being “given the choice of becoming pagans and retaining their service or losing it” but a few years earlier. The Edict of Milan in 313 promoted religious tolerance throughout the Empire. This piece of legislation was co-signed by Licinius, the other Augustus at the time. Later in Constantine's rule, it is said that he was stricken with leprosy. Fortunately for him, Pope Sylvester I cured him of his disease, and the Emperor was saved. It is this series of events that supposedly led to the Donation of Constantine (a document created around 750, in which Constantine gave Italy to the Pope, was proved illegitimate centuries later by Lorenzo Valla, a priest). Constantine also promoted the widespread construction of churches, amongst other public works as well. Part of this included the construction of a new Imperial capital, based on the Bosporus Straights, to be named Constantinople (Constantine's city).
The similarities between Rome and Constantinople are interesting, and some purposeful by its architects. For example, there was a general attempt to mirror and imitate the city plan of Rome. The most obvious exception to this aspect of the city's foundation is that at its origin it was not pagan, but Christian. Along with the Edict of Milan and Constantine's conversion, the Roman/Byzantine Empire allowed Christianity to spread without fear of repercussion. While many historians have categorized this movement of the capital as the foundation of a new empire (others see it as the splitting up of an old empire), it is interesting to see that citizens within this “new” civilization, as well as outsiders, saw the Eastern Roman Empire as but a continuation of the “regular” Roman Empire. For example, upon conquering Byzantine parts of Anatolia (modern day Turkey), the conquerors called themselves the Sultanate of Rum (Rome). This shows how other civilizations and cultures attempt to associate themselves with classical Rome in order to improve their own image. Finally, the city was strategically located between two important bodies of water, the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, connected via the small Sea of Marmara. This placed the city at the very heart of rich trade routes, and was to be the continual gate between East and West for centuries to come. As another note, the city had to import its grain, just like Rome. While the trade routes and rich seas provided goods and wealth, the city was still reliant on outside sources of food. The last of the Roman triumphs were not held in Rome, but in its sister city.
The triumph as we know it today was a grand procession in celebration of a great victory. There were multiple qualifications and requirements in order to technically receive the tremendous honor of a triumph. These coincide with the three types of triumphs, listed in order of descending importance: the triumph proper (the most famous), the ovatio, and the triumph on Mount Albanus. The requirements to request and receive a triumph are as follows:
* Magistrate must inform senate of request from outside of the city
* Magistrate must maintain distance from city, so as not to influence the citizens and the senate
* Senate must then approve of measure via vote
In order for this request to even be processed, multiple conditions that had to be met by the magistrate. These were formalized around 100 BC:
* Citizen requesting the triumph indeed had to be a magistrate with imperium (right of command)
* Defeat the enemy in a just, sanctioned war, necessary to the survival of Rome
* Kill at least 5,000 enemies
* Return with spoils of war (slaves, prisoners, trophies, statues of enemy gods)
* War must have ended
With all of these pre-conditions satisfied, and with an appropriate vote by the Senate, the magistrate could then proceed with the planning of the triumph. The triumph proper began the night before the procession was to be held. On this night, the honored magistrate would pray with priests. On the morning of the celebration, the triumphator as he was called would sometimes serve his men a special breakfast. This probably served as part as an honorific tradition of thanks to the troops and officers for their performed duties in the campaign. From there the troops abandoned their weapons, as no soldiers were allowed their arms within the city limits. Technically, when the triumphator entered the pomerium (legendary original boundary of Romulus' Rome), he surrendered his command and lost most of the power associated with it. The procession entered the city through a special gate named aptly, the Porta Triumphalis. This was only used for triumphs, yet another privilege granted via the ceremony. It is worth noting the attire of the triumphator. He wore a special purple toga embroidered with gold called a toga picta. He also wore either a wreath of laurel directly upon his head, or had it held just above by a slave riding behind him on his chariot. This chariot was pulled by four horses, and was known as a quadriga. The slave behind the magistrate also served another purpose. Allegedly, the slave would whisper in the triumphator's ear, “Memento mori,” which roughly translates to “remember you are mortal.” This served to humble the triumphator and to help him recognize that, although the honor and glory was great, this special recognition was temporary and that the true honor belonged to the gods.
After moving through the gates, the triumphator would have been met by the Senate and other magistrates. Signaling the arrival of the triumphator, as well as the beginning of the parade, were musicians, often trumpeters. Following them were the spoils of war, including liberated wealth, as well as prisoners and the kings of the enemy. “In a speech in praise of Constantine…the emperor is congratulated for… his decisive execution of a couple of rebellious Frankish kings.” It is uncertain how often these executions occurred. Behind them were multiple white bulls and/or oxen led by priests. As the final destination of the ceremony was Jupiter's temple on the Capitoline Hill, the animals would then be sacrificed to both honor and appease the mightiest of the gods, Jupiter. This would, in effect, thank the pantheon of Roman gods for their assistance and blessings in the recent conflict. At this point, exotic animals such as leopards and elephants were included if relevant, in order to illustrate the domination of exotic locales by the civilized Romans. Following the Imperator would be his sons, allowing they were of adulthood (and that he had any at all), as well as his officers. Representing an elite bodyguard, as well as the heart of Rome, would be the Lictors with their fasces. Dancers and singers would sometimes follow them, encouraging the crowd and adding cheer and excitement to the procession. If applicable, Romans freed during the campaign would then be allowed to march. This would show the loyalty of the Empire in its successful attempt at returning them into the fold. Furthermore, these citizens would serve as specific, individual reminders of the successes of both the army and magistrate. Finally, behind all of the ever-expanding pomp and flash of the procession ahead, were the men who did the dirty work – the soldiers. As triumphs propers progressed through time, fewer soldiers were allowed to march. This was perhaps due to the substantial quantities of men who were eligible to march, in that if all marched the procession would be too lengthy. These men would be shouting to the crowd, amongst other things, “Io triumphe” or, “I triumph.” After the ceremony, these men were free to return home on leave, owing to the fact that the war by requirement had to be over.
The path of the triumph was well-planned and strategic, as well as vigorously adhered to. The procession snaked its way through three stadiums, its goal being to maximize the amount of people who could watch.
Through the centuries, the order and elements of the triumph proper evolved and changed to reflect the specific details of the war and era of the empire. For example, as Josephus noted, “the Imperator's destination was the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at which point he halted and waited for the execution of the enemy's general to be performed.” Obviously, this sort of execution did not occur at each triumph. In fact, some captured kings were granted their freedom. After regaining Roman provinces in Africa, Byzantine Emperor Justinian thought so highly of the captured Vandal King Gelimer (480-553) that he granted him properties and spared his family.
With a brief summary of Constantine's life, as well as learning about the importance of the triumph itself, we can hope to more fully appreciate the Arch of Constantine and its purpose. The following will entail a physical description of the Arch and its style. The Arch is aligned so that its principal faces are aligned on the North-South axis, with, obviously, the shorter faces aligned to the East and West. The Arch has not one bay but three, which is of note because typically churches have three entrances similar to that of each of the bays.
The Arch is relatively traditional in its shape, but is innovative in its works of art as decoration. The structure consists of multiple types of marble, including Numidian yellow and white marble. What makes the Arch of Constantine unique as a surviving arch is that it borrows heavily upon works taken from other pieces and structures (spolia). Specifically, the builders took friezes and statues from Trajan (T on the diagram below), probably from his Forum. The friezes show scenes of battle, while the Dacian captives have their heads bowed in respect due to Trajan subduing them militarily. From Hadrian (H) the Arch took eight roundels, which are depicting scenes of hunting and classical stories. Finally, from Marcus Aurelius (MA) the Arch took panel reliefs illustrating the leaving and return of the Emperor for war against various Germanic tribes. Aside from these pieces of spolia, the rest of the Arch is decorated in panel reliefs created during the reign of Constantine. The Arch of Constantine was constructed in 315, in time for the 10 year anniversary celebrating Constantine's ascension to power in 306. The art from this era is of a different, less exuberant and detailed style. One view is that “it is his [artist's] inability to preserve classic ideals of beauty even superficially when the world about him supplied no points of contact with such ideals.” Another is that “these panels would have been carved by artists from local workshops who were probably used to making sarcophagi…” Of note are some ratios that were used in the design of the Arch. For example, as the diagram below illustrates, if from the base of the Corinthian column to its top is A, the distance from the column's base to the ground is 1/2 A. Also, when these distances are combined to form B, the length of the Arch is 2B, which is also equal to 3A (for a total of 25 meters). Finally, the distance between the centers of two columns on the same side is equal to 1/2 B. While these ratios are not necessarily significant, they represent the attention paid to architecture and subsequently the construction of the structure according to plan.
The goal of any arch at first glance is simple: to honor the triumphator and remind the people of his glorious deeds. The Arch of Constantine is no different, but it distinguishes itself from other arches in that it goes beyond these goals. “Constantine, who had previously been known only through border wars, suddenly stood forth in the public eye with the radiance of a hero's glory.”The Arch of Constantine was essentially a billboard, strategically placed to reach maximum viewership over time. The Arch is located adjacent to the Colosseum, to its Southwest slightly. The Arch situated itself along the parade route for any future triumph, as well. In other words, any time somebody else received a triumph, they would necessarily remember and honor Constantine via his Arch. This constant reminder to the people of Rome helped sustain Constantine's legacy through the ages.
As the Arch is still standing, it is a testament to its construction. As the Arch's messages are still clear, it is a testament to the careful planning of its designers. With all of the pieces from other emperors placed on the Arch, the viewer is unable to help associating Constantine along side of them. It is evident that these pieces were carefully selected from specific rulers (Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius) due to their significant, positive, connotations with the public. While the works of art are indeed impressive anyway, it is who/where they are from that is important to Constantine. A finer piece of art from say, Nero, would not convey the appropriate message Constantine sought, as Nero was generally looked upon with disgust. Other works on the diagram include the Siege of Verona and the Battle of Milvian Bridge. There are two winged figures in the central arch spandrels, representing winged Victory. The inscription above the central arch bay reads line by line:
To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the Greatest,
pious, fortunate, the Senate and people of Rome,
by inspiration of divinity and his own great mind
with his righteous arms
on both the tyrant and his faction
in one instant in rightful
battle he avenged the republic,
dedicated this arch as a memorial to his military victory
Besides aligning himself with the glorious emperors of yesteryear, Constantine sought to cement his reign and prove to the public his actions were necessary and worthwhile. Specifically, his enemy Maxentius is referred to as a tyrant. This overlooks the simple fact that both men were engaging in open civil war, pitting fellow Romans against one another. Because Maxentius was so evil, it allowed Constantine to engage the enemy of the people without them questioning his ulterior motives.
As mentioned above, there were many issues with Constantine's gain of power. Primarily, Constantine needed to clarify and explain his combative actions to fellow Romans. Furthermore, Constantine suffered from doubts of legitimacy for the span of his entire career. This in part originated from the thought that Constantine's mother, Helena, was but a concubine of Constantius, thus making Constantine ineligible for office.The arch helped explain these concerns of Constantine. First, by calling Maxentius a tyrant, Constantine's actions immediately seem helpful and beneficial to the entire empire. By placing himself next to famous and popular former emperors, he is associated with them. This particular form was chosen because it helped the people think of Constantine as an emperor, as well as a savior of the people. The arch was a symbol that everyone would recognize. The scenes depicted on the arch cherry pick the best series of events from the wars. Arches are also associated with the spoils of war, as well as the greatness of Roman military might and the overall glory of the Empire. Because triumph propers are reserved for facing true enemies of Rome, and specifically not civil wars, it is wondered why Constantine was granted a triumph at all, much less such a grand monument. However, loopholes evidently existed. The aspect of civil war was kept to a minimum, and as for a triumphal arch; there is a noticeable lack of art showing the triumph and battles themselves, especially in comparison to other arches such as Titus'.
Perhaps the question of whether or not the monument was influential to future generations would better be rephrased as this: how do future generations remember Constantine? The arch as a form of monument existed before, and others were created later, so to say the Arch of Constantine singlehandedly revolutionized the style or genre is not true. There are more famous arches today, such as the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. If anything, the arch is dwarfed by the nearby Colosseum. But rather than trying for overbearing splendor, Constantine went for the traditional celebratory monument. I believe the goals of the arch were indeed accomplished. Constantine is remembered in a popular light as the man who reunified the empire and consolidated power into one seat. He is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as his mother, Helena. In terms of the Byzantine Empire, he is a critical figure in its history, as the founder of its capital. I think that the design of the arch itself is not necessarily interesting, but the individual works decorating it show glimpses of the purpose of the arch, which is extremely interesting. It is difficult to perceive the arch as is now, compared to how it was meant to be seen. There would have been a bronze statue of Constantine in a quadriga on top of the attic of the arch, as well as the bronze letters filling in the inscriptions on the sides and in the central arch bay. On top of all that, the arch would have been painted to help bring it to life. I find it incredibly intriguing to see the monument as it is now, and how its (and even more so other structures) design and color have influenced the design of modern structures, rather than its original intended state.
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